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The Origins of Psychology
While
the psychology of today reflects the discipline’s rich and varied history, the
origins of psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the
field. In order to gain a full understanding of psychology, you need to spend
some time exploring its history and origins.
How
did psychology originate? When did it begin?
Who
were the people responsible for establishing psychology as a separate science?
Why Study Psychology History?
Contemporary
psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking a human
behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level.
Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until
death. By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better
understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have learned thus
far.
Questions
in Psychology
From
its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of different
questions. The initial question of how to define psychology helped establish it
as a science separate from physiology and philosophy. Additional questions that
psychologists have faced throughout history include:
· What
topics and issues should psychology is concerned with?
· What
research methods should be used to study psychology?
· Should
psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other
aspects of human behavior?
· Is
psychology really a science?
· Should
psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?
The
Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology
While psychology did not emerge as
a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced
back to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French
philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which
asserted that the mind and body were two separate
Shah
entities that interact to form the human experience. Many other issues still
debated by psychologists
today,
such as the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in
these early philosophical traditions.
So
what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers
relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize
scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and
behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a
scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had
a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of
scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.
Psychology Emerges as a Separate Discipline
During
the mid-1800s, a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt was using
scientific research methods to investigate reaction times. His book published
in 1874, Principles of Physiological Psychology, outlined many of the major
connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought
and behavior. He later opened the world’s first psychology lab in 1879 at the
University of Leipzig. This event is generally considered the official start of
psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline.
How
did Wundt view psychology? He perceived the subject as the study of human
consciousness and sought to apply experimental methods to studying internal
mental processes. While his use of a process known as introspection is seen as
unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the
stage for future experimental methods. An estimated 17,000 students attended
Wundt’s psychology lectures, and hundreds more pursued degrees in psychology
and studied in his psychology lab. While his influence dwindled in the years to
come, his impact on psychology is unquestionable.
Structuralism Becomes Psychology’s First School of Thought
Þ Edward
B. Titchener, one of Wundt’s most famous students, would go on to found
psychology’s first major school of thought.
Þ According
to the Structuralist, human consciousness could be broken down into much
smaller parts.
Þ Using
a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down
their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions.
Þ While
structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods
were unreliable, limiting, and subjective.
Þ When
Titchener died in 1927, structuralism essentially died with him.
The Functionalism of William James
Þ Psychology
flourished in American during the mid- to late-1800s.
Þ William
James emerged as one of the major American
psychologists during this period and the publication of his classic
textbook, The Principles of Psychology, established him as the father of
American psychology.
Þ His
book soon became the standard text in psychology and his ideas eventually
served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism.
Þ The
focus of functionalism was on how behavior actually works to help people live
in their environment.
Þ Functionalists
utilized methods such as direct observation.
Þ While
both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, their
conceptions of it were significantly different. While the Structuralist sought
to break down mental processes into their smallest parts,
Þ The
functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and
changing process.
Þ While
functionalism is no longer a separate school of thought, it would go on to
influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior.
Þ Up
to this point, early psychology stressed conscious human experience.
An
Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud changed the face of psychology in a
dramatic way, proposing a theory of personality that emphasized the
importance of the unconscious mind.
Þ Freud’s
clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other ailments.
Þ These
led him to believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses
contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior.
Þ In
his book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud detailed how these
unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips of the
tongue (known as "Freudian slips") and dreams.
Þ According
to Freud, psychological disorders are the result of these unconscious conflicts
becoming extreme or unbalanced.
Þ The
psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a tremendous impact on
20th-century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other
areas including art, literature and popular culture. While many of his ideas
are viewed with skepticism today, his influence on psychology is undeniable.
The Rise of Behaviorism
The
Psychology of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner
Þ Psychology
changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought
known as behaviorism rose to dominance.
Þ Behaviorism
was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the
emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious forces and conflicts.
Þ Instead,
behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by
focusing purely on observable behavior.
Behaviorism
had its earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan
Pavlov.
Þ Pavlov's
research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical
conditioning process:
Þ This
demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations.
Þ Pavlov
demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association
between, environmental stimulus, and a naturally occurring stimulus.
An
American psychologist named Watson soon became one of the strongest
advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basics principles of this new
school of thought in his 1913 paper
Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his
classic book Behaviorism (1924), writing:
"Behaviorism...holds
that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being.
Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable
concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist,
holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the
ancient days of superstition and magic."
The
impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to
dominate for the next 50 years.
Þ Psychologist
B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist
perspective with his concept of operant conditioning, which demonstrated
the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.
Þ While
behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of
behavioral psychology are still widely in use today.
Þ Therapeutic
techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification and token
economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills and overcome
maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging
from parenting to education.
Humanistic Psychology Psychology's "Third Force"
While
the first half of the twentieth-century was dominated by psychoanalysis and
behaviorism, a new school of thought known as:
Þ Humanistic
psychology emerged
during the second half of the century.
Þ Often
referred to as the "third force" in psychology, this theoretical
perspective emphasized conscious experiences.
Þ American
psychologist Carl Rogers is often considered one of the founders of this school
of thought.
Þ While
psychoanalysts looked at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focused purely
on environmental causes,
Þ Rogers
believed strongly in the power of free will and self-determination.
Þ Psychologist
Abraham Maslow also contributed to humanistic psychology with his famous hierarchy
of needs theory of human motivation.
Contemporary
Psychology
As
you have seen in this brief overview of psychology’s history, this discipline
has seen dramatic growth and change since its official beginnings in Wundt’s
lab.
v
The story certainly does not
end here. Psychology has continued to evolve since 1960 and new ideas and
perspectives have been introduced.
v
Recent research in psychology
looks at many aspects of the human experience, from the biological influences
on behavior to the impact of social and cultural factors.
v
Today, the majority of
psychologists do not identify themselves with a single school of thought.
Instead, they often focus on a particular specialty area or perspective, often
drawing
new ideas and
theories that will continue to shape psychology for years to come.
Major Schools of Thought in Psychology
When
psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and
philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and
behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major
theories within psychology.
Þ The
first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the
first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began
to emerge and vie for dominance in psychology.
Þ In
the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single
school of thought. Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook
on psychology. They often draw on ideas and theories from different schools
rather than holding to any singular outlook.
The
following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our
knowledge and understanding of psychology:
Structuralism
and Functionalism
Structuralism was
the first school of psychology, and focused on breaking down mental processes
into the most basic components. Major Structuralism thinkers include
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
The
focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most
basic elements. Structuralist used techniques such as introspection to analyze
the inner processes of the human mind.
Functionalism
formed
as a reaction to the theories of the Structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. Major functionalist
thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr. Instead of focusing on the mental
processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead interested in the
role that these processes play.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the
work of thinkers such as:
· John
B. Watson
· Ivan
Pavlov
· B.
F. Skinner
Þ Behaviorism
suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than
by internal forces.
Þ Theories
of learning including classical and operant conditioning were the focus of a
great deal of research.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund.
Þ This
school of thought emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
Þ Freud
believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: The ID, the
Ego and the
Super-ego.
Þ The
ID is composed of primal urges.
Þ The
ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality.
Þ The
superego is the part of personality that holds all of the ideals and values we
internalize from our parents and culture.
Þ Freud
believed that the interaction of these three elements was what led to all of
the complex human behaviors.
Freud's
school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated a great deal
of controversy. This controversy existed not only in his time, but also in
modern discussions of Freud's theories. Other major psychoanalytic thinkers
include:
Anna
Freud
Carl
Jung
Erik
Eriksson
Humanistic
Psychology
Þ Humanistic
psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Þ Humanistic
psychology focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of
self-actualization.
Þ While
early schools of thoughts were largely centered on abnormal human behavior,
humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people
achieve and fulfill their potential.
Þ Major
humanist thinkers include:
· Abraham
Maslow
· Carl
Rogers.
Þ Humanistic
psychology remains quite popular today and has had a major influence on other
areas of psychology including positive psychology.
Þ This
particular branch of psychology is centered on helping people living happier,
more fulfilling lives.
Gestalt psychology
Þ Gestalt
psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience
things as unified wholes.
Þ This
approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.
Þ Instead
of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience.
Þ According
to the gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Cognitive Psychology
Þ Cognitive
psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including
how people think, perceive, remember and learn.
Þ As
part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is
related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and
linguistics.
Þ Cognitive
psychology began to emerge during the 1950s, partly as a response to
behaviorism.
Þ Critics
of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes
influenced behavior.
Þ This
period is sometimes referred to as the "cognitive revolution" as a
wealth of research on topics such as information processing, language, memory
and perception began to emerge.
Þ One
of the most influential theories from this school of thought was the stages of
cognitive development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.
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